Identify and communicate possible non-causal explanations for an association, including coincidence or the influence of another variable.

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Interactive

A lurking variable can create an association

manipulative

Colour the cloud by a lurking variable — pooled data show a slope; within each group the association vanishes.

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Want a different take?

Already have one and want another angle on this point? Describe what students should notice. Requests are read and acted on.